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Photo: U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2009 To facilitate species movement and exchange of genetic material to maintain resilient species popu- lations, conservationists and managers will need to identify and protect areas critical for climate - induced wildlife movement such as corridors for terrestrial species and stepping -stone habitats for species that need stopover locations between protect- ed areas. Actions that facilitate species movements also include increasing stream and river connectiv- ity through such approaches as dam removals and stream and floodplain restoration projects. A key component of maintaining and restoring ecological connectivity will be to increase the permeability of the human landscape, or the lands and waters outside of protected areas to wildlife movement. Actions to increase permeability include wildlife friendly farm- ing, installation of fish ladders in dammed rivers, and use of predator - friendly enclosures for domestic pets or livestock to prevent human- wildlife conflicts. Finally, increasing ecological connectivity will require coordination among different land management agencies and private landowners at local, state, and federal levels. Rather than preserving areas in isola- tion, agencies, organizations, and individuals should work together to develop a connected network of conservation lands and waters. In general, systems and species that are already stressed will be less resilient to climate change and reducing non - climate threats will give wildlife species maximum flexibility to respond to climate change (Mawdsley et al. 2009). Many ecological threats may interact synergistically with climate change, includ- ing invasive species (Hellmann et al. 2008), wildfire (Marlon et al. 2009), and fragmentation (Jackson and Sax 20 10) resulting in an increased impact on native species. Managers may need to redefine acceptable or manageable levels of these ongoing threats based on the idea that the impact of these stresses will likely be greater than anticipated when the effects of climate change are added. Minimizing ongoing threats to species or ecosystems is a robust adaptation action for helping species and ecosystems deal with climate change. Actions that build resilience are less dependent on specific future climate conditions and therefore have less uncertainty associated with their outcomes (Lawler et al. 2010). Actions may include invasive species removal or restoring altered hydrol- ogy in coastal marsh ecosystems. Maintaining ecological function and promoting biodiversity is tied to increased ecosystem resilience and the provision of ecosystem services that humans depend on. Actions that build resilience focus on maintaining critical ecosystem functions such as water purification and carbon cycling and high levels of overall biodiversity, rather than focusing on main- taining specific historical compositional components of an ecosystem. To implement actions that build resilience, managers would need to define key indica- tors of ecosystem function, and then design manage- ment actions to keep those functions operational (Mawdsley et al. 2009). Studies have concluded that various levels of diversity appear to be critical for resilience and for the provision of ecosystem services (Hooper et al. 2005) and therefore protection of different levels of biodiversity (genetic, species, func-