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achievement of target goals (CMP 2007). Because our knowledge of the life history requirements of species and how ecosystems function is too incom- plete to provide definitive answers, goals and objec- tives can provide guidelines for how to make critical decisions in the face of uncertainty (Groves 2003). Identifying clear and measurable objectives will guide decision - making and will be used to evaluate management effectiveness over time. Following the S.M.A.R.T. principles can provide a practical frame- work for setting short and long -term goals. The acro- nym has a number of slightly different meanings, which can provide a more comprehensive approach to setting goals: specific, significant, stretching 11'. — measurable, meaningful, motivational — agreed upon, attainable, achievable, acceptable, action- oriented — realistic, relevant, reasonable, rewarding, results- oriented — time - based, timely, tangible, trackable One important consideration, particularly as it relates to climate change, is to identify both short and long -term goals and objectives. A useful tool as part of this process can be to develop a "results chain" for each action (CMP 2007). Results chains explore the assumptions surrounding suggested manage- ment actions, and help in developing goals, objec- tives, and measurable indicators that can be formally monitored. From our example, the assumption may be that by installing snow fences (action), we can increase the height and size of snow pack in key areas (result), which will ultimately restore or maintain natural stream flows as winters get warmer (second- ary result), ultimately resulting in providing Cold- water fish habitat. Figure 5 -5 demonstrates what that might look like in a results chain format. The process of developing goals and objectives might result in the stakeholders revaluating their priorities based on the uncertainties or feasibility of monitor- ing outcomes or of meeting measurable objectives. Results chains allow stakeholders and agency manag- ers to ask critical questions about their assumptions, and promote dialogue on how management strate- gies may reduce threats and improve the status of target species and habitats. The results chain can also provide a template for developing management goals, objectives, and indicators for each intermediate result in the chain as well as testing the underlying assump- tions. In addition, it allows for visual reflection on the key factors and attributes (indicators) that may need to be monitored over time. In the example, an assumption was that snow fences will increase snow pack in key areas that will in turn provide and increase source for water in target streams. To test this assumption, an experimental design could evalu- ate both snow pack and stream flow indicators before and after installation. More specifically, we can ask "how much additional snow pack do we want and during what time frame ?" These kinds of questions can promote thoughtful consideration of the goals, objectives, and indicators, and provide a transparent and repeatable framework for conservation planning. Adaptive management is widely promoted as the systematic approach for improving resource manage- ment under high levels of uncertainty by learning from management outcomes (Sexton et al. 1999, Gregory et al. 2008, Williams et al. 2009). Given the urgent need for tools to help environmental management professionals make decisions under uncertainty (Gregory et al. 2006), true adaptive management offers a conceptual framework and guidelines for improving the effective management of natural resource systems in a climate changed world (Williams et al. 2009).