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contains significant evidence of species responses to climate change from a range of taxa including plants, insects, and mammals (reviewed in Keith et al. 2009). Perhaps one of the most widely recognized impacts of climate change on species is expected and observed range shifts. In regions experiencing warm- ing temperatures, expected species range - shifts are generally poleward to higher latitudes and upward to higher elevations (Parmesan 2006). The distri- bution and abundance of plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate species that occur along the latitude and elevation margins of their range are already strongly influenced by climate change (Lenoir et al. 2008). -1-,,,,q1 / / /i "',ti 'fn !' % //E'Jy ,qj)i- 1/1 V'( 'r1l / //C1 /116q i'r, /Ili%! // /r, /Il,ti A review by Parmesan (2006) provides a number of examples of observed species shifts in response to climate change. In northern hemisphere temperate First Infested in 1951 Year of First Infestation 0 Native Range of Hemlock L] Not Infested 1968 -1984 A Q 1985 -1990 1991 -2002 o3Ea �Plp 0 375 75 150 Miles v Disclaimer: This map depicts counties with ; -,_, established HWA populations that are confirmed and reported by respective state forest health officials. The coarse nature of the map does not provide information below the county level and users should not assume that highlighted infested counties are entirely infested. Map Produced by: USDA Forest Service 03/22/02 Figure 1 -5. Hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) infestation in North America from 1951 to 2002 (Source: USDA Forest Service 2010). Wooly adelgid are sensitive to cold temperatures and experience signifi- cant overwintering mortality when exposed to cold conditions. Under climate change, this pest is expected to thrive with warmer winters, and has already experienced range expansion since it was discovered in 1951.