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The development of a biofuels economy can have an impact on species and habitats at multiple stag- es of production, from land conversion for biofuel feedstocks and the logistics of harvest, to treatment and transportation from field to refinery (Dale et al. 2010). Increased biofuel is associated with clear- ing native habitat, displacing agricultural activi- ties into new areas, and an increasing likelihood of alien species introductions. As demand for ethanol increases and corn prices rise, expanding corn acreage could decrease area available for wildlife. Addition- ally, the building of refineries and their associated infrastructure can change the economic dynamics of rural areas, and thus influence changes in land -use that may impact wildlife and habitat. Although corn is the dominant feedstock currently used in the U.S. for biofuel, current research suggests that there are important environmental drawbacks. For example, Pimental and Pitzek (2005) found that the energy outputs from ethanol produced using corn, switchgrass, and wood biomass were each less than their respective fossil energy inputs. For wild- life, corn monocultures offer few habitat benefits and may exacerbate the impact of fertilizers and pesticides on aquatic systems. Thomas et al. (2009) modeled the water quality impacts of shifting from a corn - soybean rotation to more corn - intensive rotations to simulate increasing demand for biofuels in Indiana. They found that, when managing for continuous corn production, mean annual erosion was signifi- cantly greater than in corn - soybean rotation systems. In conventional agriculture with high levels of chem- ical inputs, erosion leads to water quality degrada- tion as a result of agrochemicals attaching to soil particles and washing into local waterways (Thomas et al. 2009). These agrochemicals may persist in soil sediments or biomagnify and accumulate as toxins in the food chain. Some researchers have suggested that the push to develop and grow biofuel feedstocks may change the way land is used in the U.S., while other studies have demonstrated that biofuel targets can be met with relatively minor adjustments (Dale et al. 2010). Of particular concern is the conversion of currently protected land to monoculture biofuel production. Fargione et al. (2008) have argued that the conver- sion of rainforests, peatlands, savannas, or grass- lands would result in 17 to 420 times more carbon dioxide being released than the annual greenhouse gas reductions that these fuels would provide from displacing fossil fuels. A recent paper by Eggers et al. (2009) found that increasing European Union biofuel production targets may have, on balance, a negative impact on biodiversity. They suggested that more of the 313 wildlife species they analyzed would suffer from habitat losses, though the magnitude of impacts varied spatially and with the feedstock type (Eggers et al. 2009). In this same study, woody crops (lignocellulosic) were found to be less detrimental to wildlife than arable crops. Although cellulosic etha- nol is not currently cost - competitive, the Depart- ment of Energy (DOE) is investing in biorefineries that will produce more than 130 million gallons of cellulosic ethanol per year and projects that cellulosic ethanol will be cost - competitive with gasoline by 2012 (DOE 2007). These impacts may differ in the United States. Kline and Dale (2008) argue that enough land is available for biofuel production in the U.S., and that strategi- cally using previously cleared or other marginal lands would actually enhance environmental and econom- ic sustamability. However, some conservationists are concerned about the potential conversion of privately -owned land that is currently enrolled in federal habitat conservation programs to switchgrass or other monocultures for biofuel production (Kline and Dale 2008). As the financial benefits of biofuel production increase, the incentives to keep privately - owned land in federal conservation programs may diminish. Over 300 million acres (25 million of which are dominated by grasses) are currently enrolled in